In Kibogo, Scholastique Mukasonga’s brand of satire is prominently displayed. She critiques the social belief systems imposed on Africans by Christianity, which promotes Anglo-Saxon morality, using both delightful and intricate language.
By Frank Njugi
One of the central figures of modern African literature, Nigerian novelist, poet, and critic, Chinua Achebe, once reflected on how, although fiction is undoubtedly imaginary, it can also be true or false—not in the sense of factual accuracy, but in terms of its integrity, intent, and impartiality. Achebe aligned with American essayist, Ralph Waldo Emerson’s belief that works of fiction can unveil truths that reality often conceals.
Scholastique Mukasonga, the French-Rwandan author, reveals deeper truths in her novel, Kibogo. The book explores the conflict between traditional Rwandan customs and Christian doctrine during the latter part of the colonial era and beyond. Originally written in French, Kibogo was translated into English by Mark Polizzotti. The novel examines the intersection of religion and evangelisation, as well as the impact of Rwanda’s colonisation.
Kibogo is divided into four parts. The first part, titled Ruzagaruya, refers to the great Ruanda-Urundi famine of the same name. Mukasonga delves into the origins of the famine, how it was worsened by the colonial authorities’ efforts to divert agricultural produce to the Belgian Congo as part of the Allied war effort during World War II, and how the colonists employed Christianity to pacify the population during this period.
In this first part, Mukasonga centres the emotional core of the narrative around a character named Mukamwezi, a woman who steadfastly refuses to adhere to the catechism imposed on her people. This defiance leads the missionary priests to condemn her as a heathen and an obstinate witch. Mukamwezi believes in the lore of ‘Kibogo’ as the saviour, rather than Jesus Christ or God, as the surrounding Christians do.
In Ruzagaruya, we learn that the title of the book, Kibogo, is derived from a Rwandan folklore tale. According to tradition, Kibogo was the son of Ndahiro II Cyamatare, who was the Mwami (king) of the Kingdom of Rwanda at the end of the fifteenth century. During a great drought, it is said that Kibogo, as the king’s son, was taken up into the skies to bring the rains back.
The second part, titled Akayezu, centres on a character named Akayezu, or ‘Little-Jesus’, as he is nicknamed. He is a rogue priest who defies certain doctrines of Christianity and instead believes in the lore of Kibogo. Akayezu holds that, like Jesus Christ, Kibogo ascended to heaven and could return if a drought similar to the Ruzagaruya were to strike Rwanda again.
Mukasonga uses Akayezu’s story to examine how, during colonial times, the church ostracised any African who questioned their faith. In Kibogo, Akayezu is cast out by the church and rejected by his family, ultimately being forced to live in a small hut deep within what Mukasonga describes as the forbidden woods. There, the fear inspired by the ancient trees shields him from further attempts at banishment.
The third part of Kibogo, titled after Mukamwezi, centres on the interactions between Akayezu, the cast-out priest, and Mukamwezi, the ostracised woman. In this section, Akayezu and Mukamwezi form a bond after Akayezu undertakes to ‘evangelise’ in his own unique way. Initially, Akayezu’s remaining followers are opposed to this alliance and even attempt to use elixirs to free him from what they perceive as nefarious bonds holding him captive.
Eventually, Akayezu’s followers come to accept the union when Mukamwezi declares that Akayezu is the chosen guide for Kibogo’s anticipated return from heaven. She proclaims, “It is Akayezu who shall clear a path for him through the clouds, who shall summon the storms, who shall walk before him on our hillside. All this I have seen in a dream”. However, this prophecy never materialises as Akayezu perishes in a violent storm, and Mukamwezi retreats to die quietly in a forbidden mountain. Their legend thus becomes a part of the nocturnal storytelling repertoire.
The final part of Kibogo, eponymously titled, is set many years after the time of Akayezu and Mukamwezi. It introduces a new generation of white researchers, including professors, scientists, and anthropologists, who come to Rwanda to study the lore surrounding Akayezu and Mukamwezi.
They clash with their Christian predecessors, who label them as ‘false scientists who have not attended mission schools but rather the devil’s school’. The new group of researchers seeks to document the story in a research paper they believe ‘will be a landmark in African studies, claiming it will revolutionise the history of Rwanda and Central Africa’.
The Christian whites use the research by white historians as justification for dismissing what they call pagan charades, while the historians argue that their aim is to uncover the historical riches preserved in the memories of the locals. The conflict takes place at the hillside, located at the base of a mountain known as Mount Runani.
This hillside, where the entire book is set, is a place where lore is preserved by a select few individuals with exceptional oratory skills. These individuals provide a significant impetus for listening to myths, tales, and lore. The white Christian priests, however, interpret this preservation of oral tradition as evidence of savagery among Africans.
The preservation of the Kibogo and Akayezu with Mukamwezi stories through oral tradition on the hillside, and the influence these stories hold—particularly among the youth, who are seen as the future of the nascent Church of Rwanda—raises concerns among the priests.
The approach employed throughout the book offers genuine reflective learning about the Rwandan people and unveils true revelations about the country’s history. In Kibogo, Mukasonga’s brand of satire is prominently displayed. She critiques the social belief systems imposed on Africans by Christianity, which promotes Anglo-Saxon morality, using both delightful and intricate language. Mukasonga explores how Christianity encouraged humility and docility among Rwandans, making them more susceptible to suppression.
Mukasonga’s works have consistently grappled with Rwanda’s turbulent history. Her 2012 novel, Our Lady of the Nile, addresses the 1994 Rwandan genocide, while her 2016 memoir, Cockroaches, explores the long-standing Hutu-Tutsi conflict. Her profound ability to tell these untold Rwandan stories is likely why her name remains a perennial favourite for the Nobel Prize in Literature.
Through Kibogo, which dives into Rwanda’s tumultuous history with Christianity during the colonial era and beyond, Mukasonga continues to reconstruct a lost world from memory. She preserves the dignity and humanity of her countrymen, remaining true to her longstanding commitment.
Frank Njugi is a Kenyan Writer, Culture journalist and Critic who has written on the East African and African culture scene for platforms such as Debunk Media, Republic Journal, Sinema Focus, Culture Africa, The Elephant,Wakilisha Africa, The Moveee, Africa in Dialogue, Afrocritik and others. He tweets as @franknjugi.